College Writing Tips: Check Your Logic

My teaching career began in the fall of 1997 when a faculty member experienced a heartache about a week before the semester began. During the intervening years between then and today, my peers, colleagues, and even those in business & industry, have noticed a tremendous decline in people's ability to write.

College Writing Tip Six:  Check for consistency and congruence errors.

Some exams, quiz, short answer and essay questions can be validated within an exam, if one is paying attention. Some questions are deliberately written to see if students are paying attention. An early question, for instance, may contain the answer to a later question. Or, a question deep in the exam may be the answer to an early question. Objective exams, those exams with multiple choice, true/false, or fill-in-the-blank questions are very good for placing "easter eggs."

"With the exception of Malta and Monaco, which European country has the highest urban density?"
(a) Portugal
(b) Belgium
(c) Spain
(d) Tripoli 

"Of the following traits, Belgium represents the country with"
(a) the highest IMR in Europe
(b) 99% population
(c) the highest rate of natural population increase
(d) the highest overall population

These questions dovetail; they are nearly the same question, approached in slightly different ways. The first question represents a small-scale question, asking the taker to consider all of Europe. Then, make a choice concerning which country applies to the prescribed condition.

The second question is a larger-scale question, focused on the quality of a single country with respect to all others. To remain consistent, the taker should select (b) in the first question and select (b) to satisfy the second question. Educators encourage students to go back over exams to verify answers because we know exams contain questions in these forms. Now, a 100-question exam is not going to be 50% redundant, with reflections of questions throughout. Perhaps only 10% of the questions will be reflections of other questions. However, 10% is a letter grade.

In writing assignments, be congruent in your responses. In teaching Weather and Climate, one of the concepts nearly all students struggle with is the notion of Air Pressure. Air molecules are susceptible to gravity like every other aspect of our physical world (though at the quantum level, I'm not so sure). Our Earth's gravity pulls air molecules to the surface, creating air pressure of about 14.7 pounds per square inch (14.7 psi) acting upon our bodies at mean sea level (MSL). As we elevate ourselves, whether by climbing a mountain, hang-gliding, or diving from a high-altitude aircraft, fewer air molecules are around us, pushing and bumping into us, thus the pressure of air on our bodies is less. At 8,000 ft, for example, air pressure is about 10 psi, about 33% less pressure than at mean sea level. Denver, Colorado is the "Mile-High City," being about 5,280 ft above MSL.

Most people understand as we climb a hill or mountain, the air becomes thinner, oxygen becomes less prevalent, and breathing becomes labored. However, in my Weather and Climate course I ask two questions. The first question asks students to explain why air pressure decreases as altitude increases. The first question tells the student air pressure decreases with altitude, and requires them to explain why. More than 50% of the responses consist of explanations similar to the following:

"Air pressure is less at high altitude because the molecules are more spread out."

The response is not entirely wrong. The air molecules are more dispersed. Dispersion does not answer the question; dispersion only describes a characteristic of the upper atmosphere. Dispersion does not explain the fundamental physics behind the dispersion. Dispersion of air molecules does not explain the better answer of gravity pulling molecules down. Air molecules move very fast, faster than you might imagine. Air molecules do not reach escape velocity; otherwise they would all eventually shoot off into space, leaving behind a cold, lifeless world. Gravity compels the molecules back to Earth, thankfully. The primary concern with the above responses is the lack of attention paid to lecture notes, lecture videos, and the textbook content, as the answer is clearly stated in all three resources.

The second question involves climbing.

"You have won a trip to Tanzania to climb Mt. Kilimanjaro, elevation 19,341 ft. Would you expect to experience more ear popping from the surface to 10,000 ft, or from 10,000 ft to the summit at 19,341 ft?"

The second question is the application of the knowledge evidenced in the first question. Over 50% of students respond with some form of the following reply.

"A person will experience more ear-popping from 10,000 ft to the summit because the air gets more dense as one climbs the mountain."

"Because air pressure increases with altitude the person will have painful ear-popping the closer he gets to the summit."

Congruence between the first question and the latter question collapses for most students. Even though they realize the air is thinner at altitude, they mistakenly conflate ear-popping as being an issue with higher pressure, rather than pressure change, and then wrongly invert the atmospheric pressure column. A person climbing will experience greater ear-popping from the ground to 10,000 ft because the greatest change in atmospheric pressure occurs at lower altitudes. Air pressure does not change in direct proportion to changes in altitude; air pressure change is more logarithmic, changing rapidly with small changes in altitude. From 10,000 ft to the summit, less air is pushing on the ear drums so ear-popping should be less painful and less frequent.

Student writing assignments often contain errors in logic and congruence. These errors can be significant and can indicate a lack of true learning, flaws in conceptualizing theories, techniques, and methods used in science.

We call this phenomenon, "missing the point."

Next: "Point Values"

College Writing Tips: Count Your Arguments

My teaching career began in the fall of 1997 when a faculty member experienced a heartache about a week before the semester began. During the intervening years between then and today, my peers, colleagues, and even those in business & industry, have noticed a tremendous decline in people's ability to write.

College Writing Tip Five: If you say "four reasons," then you better have four reasons.

Some writing errors should never happen. These particular writing errors should never happen because most people writing can count past four. Some students remember some of the high school English and writing courses to establish a thesis statement to open a paragraph. Such a thesis statement might go something like:

"In the creation of a good map, four elements must be considered."

The author of the above sentence has set the stage for a discussion of a good map by informing us there was a minimum of four essential elements which bind together a good map. Thus, the author needs to follow through and communicate four elements of map creation. The number of elements should also be apparent to the reader.

Proofreaders of textbooks miss these details, as well. Good textbook authors will open paragraphs with leading details, communicating in advance we are about to receive some important information.

"Jerusalem is perhaps the most hotly contested city globally. Jews, Muslims, Greek Orthodox and Armenian Christians all vie for access and responsibilities. Due to the number of different factions with interests in controlling the city, especially the Old City of Jerusalem, three plans are currently being evaluated to ensure all parties have fair and equal access to the world's holiest city."

 "The first plan involves turning the management of the Old City of Jerusalem over to a United Nations management group. While the composition of the management group has yet to be decided, the management of the Old City by a disinterested 3rd party could provide a potential solution. 

A plan suggested by a non-partisan group of Christian and Muslims suggests the creation of governing council comprised of members of each of the four quarters of the Old City. In essence, the Old City of Jerusalem would be managed as a "city-within-a-city." Such a plan is not completely without precedent; Vatican City is an example of such a city.

"Each of the proposed plans has proponents and critics. Many people would prefer outside governance, such as the UN proposal. Other vocal groups rankle at the notion of having outsiders control a city held to be the spiritual center of the world of three religions. Time will tell whether any of the three proposals will be implemented, or, perhaps, a fourth proposal will win out.

If you did not count three plans, good; there are only two plans discussed. Poor proofing and editing by authors and publishers alike generate frustration among students and educators. Such errors are typically easy to find.

How hard is counting three or four arguments?

Next: "Make Sure Your Arguments Are Consistent and Congruent."

College Writing Tips: Respect Yourself and Spell-Check Yourself

My teaching career began in the fall of 1997 when a faculty member experienced a heartache about a week before the semester began. During the intervening years between then and today, my peers, colleagues, and even those in business & industry, have noticed a tremendous decline in people's ability to write.

Writing Tip Four: Use proper grammar, punctuation, and spelling

Nothing can kill a good bit of writing like poor grammar, lack or misuse of punctuation, and, of course, spelling. While I am very evangelical about writing, and writing well, I often find errors in my own writing. I get in a hurry, I can't type as fast as I think, and words and phrases I often omit. I spend time to review my drafts, spell-check, look for grammatical mistakes. Despite my own efforts I cannot catch every error. I rely on spelling and grammar-checking apps to help me, one of which I mention below.

The journal writing activities popular in Primary and Secondary education appear to be worth little. I say they are worth little because of the lack of structure, organization, and the limited attention given to spelling and grammar. When students who have learned to write using the "journal paradigm" reach college, they often believe the journal writing which they were allowed to use in high school will work well at university. Wrong.

From what I gather, journal writing in middle and high school are a component of academic portfolios and are required. The problem with journals lies in their evaluation. Journals are not evaluated for grammar, punctuation, nor spelling. Journals are essentially a "stream of consciousness" exercise where the students are allowed to "free write" and not worry about the last 8-10 years of English, grammar, spelling, or punctuation they have been taught, or are being taught.

Nowhere in the world is writing allowed which permits students to write junk to my knowledge. Nowhere in the world will you find books, articles, web sites, or any other professional media written without adherence to formal writing rules. Except in the United States. Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Saudi, German, French, you name the culture, students of English in all of those cultures are learning formal English writing rules and expected to use them at all times.

Too many U.S. high school students believe their college writing is fine because they were allowed to get away with writing abysmal works in high school. Poor writing leads to poor thinking, and poor thinking leads to poor communication. Nothing good comes from allowing students to write whatever they want without critical input. In fact, doing so encourages laziness and can carry over to other courses and work environments.

Poor writing leads to poor thinking, and poor thinking leads to poor communication.

Worried about their fragile little egos? Wait until they reach college or university and fail their first semester, and second semester, because they have been led down a candy-colored lane of lies and false accolades. Then, after they have washed-out in their first year of college because of sugary-sweet coos and watered-down criticisms, will the realization their efforts in high school, and the people they trusted to prepare them for life after high school was nothing but a charming deceit.

I personally blame my peers. My peers are the ones changing policies today, attempting to build a "kinder, gentler," and altogether reckless education system based on their own personal anathema to their own educational experiences. My memories of high school involved listening to the whines of homework, complaints about the relevance of some subjects, and the foreshadowing of today's educational conditions, e.g. "When I have kids, they'll never have to go through this. This is stupid."

The only people who do not believe writing is fundamental to society are those feckless individuals who seek to control people through fear and manipulation of facts and information. Writing lies at the heart of Reason, Logic, Thought, critical to the pursuit of knowledge, and vital to the continuance of free and open societies. Damage writing, and society become inflicted with a potentially fatal disease.

Rather than become complicit in damaging society, work against the damaging effects of bad writing in our global society and pay attention to the details of your thoughts made manifest in words.

Learn to use the spell-check technology in Word, or any other editing environment. Not using spell-check technology, or proofreading, is inexcusable in our Age.

Try the app, Ginger [link]. Ginger will read writing aloud to help the author find inconsistencies in grammar. Reading a work aloud is the best way to repair problem writing.

Writing well is almost subversive in today's culture.

Next: "Count Your Reasons"

College Writing Tips: Respond to Both "X and Y"

My teaching career began in the fall of 1997 when a faculty member experienced a heartache about a week before the semester began. During the intervening years between then and today, my peers, colleagues, and even those in business & industry, have noticed a tremendous decline in people's ability to write.

Recently, I spent many hours grading writing assignments. These writing assignments ran the gamut from "short answers" to "essay" to 3 page response-type papers. My response papers are based on listening to two podcasts. One podcast is an economics podcast discussing the geographic traits of snack food. The other podcast is a mesmerizing account of a couple of Americans traveling throughout a South Asian country.

The more I read, the more patterns in writing emerged. Not just patterns in though; writing involves considerable thinking. I tend to reason writing reveals thinking, how a person thinks, how a person organizes thoughts and information. Writing reveals a considerable amount of information about a person, and I can understand how writing makes people nervous. I'm nervous merely writing this post, but I'm dealing with it.

Writing for higher education doesn't have to involve the level of stress people attach to writing assignments. Understanding some simple concepts, requirements, goals, and using the education which was provided from ages 6-18 (maybe 16 in Kentucky) can alleviate anxiety surrounding writing.

Below, I am going to walk through some of the common errors I find in writing. Not only will I identify errors but I'll explain how to adjust thinking processes to help direct attention to formulating better academic responses to writing assignments.

Writing Tip Three: Answer both "x" and "y"

Most students, probably close to 85% of students, actually, do not answer questions in the form of "how is X different than Y?" appropriately. These "compare and contrast" expect the student to answer both sides of the argument. Both "X" and "Y" must be addressed. Failure to discuss "X" and "Y" results in incomplete answers. To remove ambiguity, I'll use an example.

"Why is population density not as good of an indicator of Quality of Life as physiologic density might be?"

(A)Population density describes the number of people per square mile. The higher the number of people per mile, the more crowded a place is. Crowded places are sometimes not nice places to live.

(B) Population density is a measure of the number of people per square mile; how disperse people are. The population density is calculated by dividing the number of people by the number of square miles in a state or country. Physiologic density is calculated by dividing the population not by the total area of a state or country but by only the amount of farmland in the country. Rural areas usually have less people living on the land. More people live in cities. So, a high physiologic density can mean more urban life, less rural life. The population density figure will be lower, indicating people are more spread-out, more elbow room, and perhaps give a false indication of a better quality of life, whereas the physiologic density may provide a better measure of how crowded a place is, how close people may live to one another, and how little elbow room is truly available.

Yes, (B) is more verbose than (A). However, (A) is not enough. (A) is not a good answer as only one side of the comparison is considered, and no supporting examples are provided. 

Response (B), on the other hand, is far more complete and discusses both population density and both physiologic density. Furthermore, (B) makes an attempt to compare and contrast (A) and (B). (B) also provides a limited example in contrasting rural vs. urban populations.

"Why is the Kelvin temperature scale for scientific measurements than either Fahrenheit or Celsius?"

(A) Zero (0) on the Kelvin scale is true zero, the lowest temperature anything can be.

(B) Zero (0) on the Kelvin scale is absolute zero, the absence of molecular movement. Nothing can be colder than 0 Kelvin. Both the Celsius and the Fahrenheit scale have somewhat arbitrary measures which are identified as zero (0). For instance, on the Celsius scale, 0°C is the temperature at which water freezes, while on the Fahrenheit scale, water freezes at 32°F. Neither Fahrenheit nor Celsius temperatures indicate a complete lack of heat.

A student who wants to separate his (her) self from the pack of students in a classroom, a student who wants to stand-out among their peers, will figure out how to do stand-out. Typically, standing-out does not mean making a spectacle of one's self in the classroom. Standing apart from peers is best done through performance and classroom effort, homework, papers, and effort on projects, leadership in groups, and, of course, class participation. Spectacle students create a facade of interest. Honest, motivated students will apply knowledge from other courses or life experience to augment their work in the classroom.

Faculty take note of excellent work. Excellent work, thoroughness, can result in student being singled-out for scholarships, work-study, grants, or other benefits. Faculty will provide references to motivated, thorough students which can go a long way towards finding better, more interesting, more lucrative employment opportunities.

Faculty work very hard to improve thinking, analytical, and interpretive skills of people, to challenge and coach students. The rigor of university is specifically to coach for these traits. Resistance to coaching is resistance to learning and self-improvement, thus those students who complain are complaining about improving themselves. 

Obviously, a complaining student is essentially arguing for the maintaining the Status Quo of the their own ignorance.

Don't stand in the way of your own success.

Next: "Respect yourself and use spell-check."

College Writing Tips: Use the Lingo

My teaching career began in the fall of 1997 when a faculty member experienced a heartache about a week before the semester began. During the intervening years between then and today, my peers, colleagues, and even those in business & industry, have noticed a tremendous decline in people's ability to write.

Recently, I spent many hours grading writing assignments. These writing assignments ran the gamut from "short answers" to "essay" to 3 page response-type papers. My response papers are based on listening to two podcasts. One podcast is an economics podcast discussing the geographic traits of snack food. The other podcast is a mesmerizing account of a couple of Americans traveling throughout a South Asian country.

The more I read, the more patterns in writing emerged. Not just patterns in though; writing involves considerable thinking. I tend to reason writing reveals thinking, how a person thinks, how a person organizes thoughts and information. Writing reveals a considerable amount of information about a person, and I can understand how writing makes people nervous. I'm nervous merely writing this post, but I'm dealing with it.

Writing for higher education doesn't have to involve the level of stress people attach to writing assignments. Understanding some simple concepts, requirements, goals, and using the education which was provided from ages 6-18 (maybe 16 in Kentucky) can alleviate anxiety surrounding writing.

I am going to walk through some of the common errors I find in writing. Not only will I identify errors but I'll explain how to adjust thinking processes to help direct attention to formulating better academic responses to writing assignments.

Writing Tip Two: "Use the Lingo"

Students frequently lament, "why do I have to take this course? This course is pointless." No, you make it pointless with your lack of imagination and lack of attention. Engage your brain and pay attention. Look, sometimes education is not about the direct knowledge gained from major or minor courses. Education is also about how one approaches learning new topics, regardless of whether or not those topics are interesting. Employers, supervisors, managers, vice-presidents will notice whether or not the information is being applied, if terminology is being used, if someone is a "team-player," or whether their mind is someplace else.

Employers will expect reports, proposals, any document for that matter, to contain clear language and appropriate use of terminology. Not using terminology translates into lack of attention to detail. Lack of attention to detail translates into lack of caring and responsibility. Eventually, one will be passed over for promotions, merit pay, or other special perks. Paying attention to details and using terminology while in school creates good habits for one can use later in employment. Accept the fact some courses and details are not enjoyable and move on.

"Meteorologists have several means of obtaining information about the upper atmosphere. The upper atmosphere is the portion of the Earth's atmosphere which includes in the troposphere, from the surface to about 18,000ft. Many commercial aircraft have on-board equipment which transmits data to ground stations. Radiosondes and rawinsondes (weather balloons) collect weather data near major airports. NOAA and other countries place weather satellites in orbit which collect images of the Earth which track storms, measure water vapor, and measure atmospheric temperatures.

Notice in the above "good answer," terminology is used. Troposphere is defined, for example. NOAA, the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration is mentioned, both types of weather balloons are also noted. If the answer had mentioned GOES weather satellites, the response would have been nearly brilliant for a short answer. A short answer, not an essay.

The use of terminology found within a unit of study or a chapter indicates attentiveness to detail and effort. In fact, students need to be reminded they are paying to be trained, evaluated, coach, and challenged. Students need to be reminded to use the education they have been exposed to over the course of their entire lives.

The last thing a student is paying for is a grade.

Next: "Answer Both X & Y"

College Writing Tips: Read the Question

My teaching career began in the fall of 1997 when a faculty member experienced a heartache about a week before the semester began. During the intervening years between then and today, my peers, colleagues, and even those in business & industry, have noticed a tremendous decline in people's ability to write.

Recently, I spent many hours grading writing assignments. These writing assignments ran the gamut from "short answers" to "essay" to 3 page response-type papers. My response papers are based on listening to two podcasts. One podcast is an economics podcast discussing the geographic traits of snack food. The other podcast is a mesmerizing account of a couple of Americans travelling throughout a South Asian country.

The more I read, the more patterns in writing emerged. Not just patterns in thought; writing involves considerable thinking. I tend to reason writing reveals thinking, how a person thinks, how a person organizes thoughts and information. Writing reveals a considerable amount of information about a person, and I can understand how writing makes people nervous. I'm nervous merely writing this post, but I'm dealing with it.

Writing in higher education doesn't have to involve the level of stress people attach to writing assignments. Understanding some simple concepts, requirements, goals, and using the education which was provided from ages 6-18 (maybe 16 in Kentucky) can alleviate anxiety surrounding writing.

I am going to walk through some of the common errors I find in writing. Not only will I identify errors but I'll explain how to adjust thinking processes to help direct attention to formulating better academic responses to writing assignments.

Writing Tip One:  "Read the Question"

One of the easiest ways to achieve better writing scores is simply to read the question. Qualitatively, I estimate about 1 in 4 students do not actually consider question details. The ratio may be higher, I'll admit. Take an inventory of the requirements of the question. Look for key words, like "explain" or "discuss" or "describe." Such words indicate a simple sentence or two will not pass the muster. Students tend to provide a list of objects, thoughts, or details and consider the list they have provided a "discussion." Whether the items are provided in bullet form, or merely separated by commas, lists are not "discussions."

"Describe the sources of information meteorologists use for collecting information about the upper atmosphere."

A poor answer: Weatherpeople have lots of ways of getting info about the air. Planes, balloons, and satellites give them the info they need to make weather maps.

A better answer: Meteorologists have a few ways of obtaining information about the upper atmosphere. Aircraft can collect weather information, weather balloons are sent into the atmosphere to collect data, and satellites send images of weather systems back to Earth.

A good answer: Meteorologists have several means of obtaining information about the upper atmosphere. The upper atmosphere is the portion of the Earth's atmosphere which includes in the troposphere, from the surface to about 60,000ft. Many commercial aircraft have on-board equipment which transmits data to ground stations. Radiosondes and rawinsondes (weather balloons) collect weather data near major airports. NOAA and other countries place weather satellites in orbit which collect images of the Earth which track storms, measure water vapor, and measure atmospheric temperatures.

Students frequently make the mistake believing their audience is their professor. Yes, the professor may grade the short answer, essay, or paper but thinking the professor was the intended audience can mentally trap a student. If a student believes the instructor is the intended audience important, relevant information may be omitted. I have had students tell me or email me, "Why do I need to be so detailed? Don't you know the answer? I thought you knew this?!"

Whether I know, or do not know, the "answer" is not the real issue. The real issue relates to the informational content of the response. Students should not write as if the instructor is the intended audience. The audience should NOT be thought of as the professor but rather some ignorant individual who needs to learn about the topic. When the student can think of themselves as the educator, then the real learning begins. I tell my students "write as if you are educating someone, not writing to me as if I know something."

Simply put, the student's job is to communicate the breadth and depth of their knowledge to the professor.

Provide enough details, facts, evidence, and examples for us to evaluate.

Next: "Use The Lingo"

Drones To The Rescue! Drones Use in Disaster and Emergency Services

Drones have many applications, are considered by many fields and disciplines to be incredibly useful tools. My concern lies with our governments use and potential misuse of drones in the targeted killing of military targets. Many innocent people have been killed, women and children, alongside the intended target. As a result, drones have suffered serious damage to their reputation before any non-lethal, non-military drones implemented for any number of benign tasks for which they are eminently capable and perhaps better suited than a human-occupied aircraft.

In my first post, I provided an overview of many issues associated with drones. In closing my first post I hinted I would author future posts, offering some current or potential uses. Some of the applications I identify are currently in use, with potential for growth; other applications are more future-looking, not in place today, but perhaps in the not-so-distant future.

In my second post, I discussed another field where drone use is opening doors to new exploration techniques. Archaeology is finding many uses for a remotely-piloted aircraft, or unmanned aerial systems (UAS). Kites are being equipped with digital cameras. Balloon kits allow researches to hoist digital cameras aloft. More detailed archaeological surveys mandate stability unattainable from kites and balloons. The survey of archaeological sites must be systematic. Flight lines need to be planned in advance of a survey to ensure capture of the area of interest (AOI). Scale of acquired imagery needs to be established. Scale and resolution of acquired imagery must be considered before flying a drone. When the details of the mission have been thoroughly accounted, then imagery is acquired. With regards to UAS, several missions might be flown. The first mission might result in imagery, visually inspected, to help plan the geographic scope of future flights. Sometimes, interesting landforms which imply a cultural imprint can only be seen from above, impacting the scale and scope of later drone missions. In Europe, especially in the U.K., France, and Eastern Europe, drone use has improved the knowledge of culture imprints on the landscape, aided in the inventory of archaeological sites, aided in the detection, analysis, and interpretation of archaeological sites.

The third installment on civilian drone use introduces some concepts related to the electromagnetic spectrum. We have to remember our eyes are sensitive to only a small part of the total electromagnetic (EM) spectrum. We must also bear in mind the objects around us reflect EM energy in a variety of ways. Some objects emit EM energy in different wavelengths. My third installment introduces some elementary notions to help further the discussion and direct us to drone uses in agriculture.

In my fourth article on drone use I diverge from civilian uses, introducing public use drones. I also am aggregating many different fields into Disaster and Emergency Management / Services (DEM/DES). The scope of DES involves many different actors, NOAA, FEMA, state-level DES offices, and local search-and-rescue teams.

From helping with local tragedies to providing services for large-scale, region-wide disasters drones have a myriad of potential uses. Drones can come in a variety of sizes. Some drone prototypes are as small as hummingbirds. Many drones which I have in mind for crossover civilian/private and public use are typically less then 25lbs (12kg) and can easily fit inside a hardsided suitcase. Still other drones are larger, requiring some form of take-off and landing "strip" such as a sidewalk, street or roadway, or small airfield like those located outside most small towns. Many drones require zero landing strips. With 4 to as many as 8 electric or gas-powered engines, these drones are vertical take-off and landing (VTOL) capable.

Most drones available to the general public today cannot stay airborne for longer than perhaps 20 minutes. Powered by nickle-metal hydride (NiMH), Lithium ion (Li-Ion), or nickle-cadmium (NiCd) batteries flights will last the length of a single charge. Depending on the size of the vehicle, number and type of batteries, and payload drone flight time is usually less than 15 minutes. However, we know from press releases and news articles, some drones are huge and have flight times measured in days, not minutes, like the Northrop Grumman RQ-4A Global Hawk. Of course, these are not commercial drones; these are military grade drones.

The miniaturization prevalent throughout the cellular telecommunications industry paralleled by same or similar technology in tablets and e-readers are also becoming part of the drone industry. Computer and IC chips, GPS circuits, camera and video optics, WIFI and Bluetooth, open source operating systems, gyroscopes, barometers, audio chips, and USB connectivity integrate into current drone systems.

The era in which we live is experiencing an unprecedented volume of mingling technologies. Miniaturization coupled with mass-production parallel with new light-weight materials and ubiquitous access to technology and few barriers to entry for hobbyists or entrepreneurs has presented an environment rich with potential.

Within our lifetimes, we may not even drive in the traditional sense. Our very own cars will become drones, piloted using a symphony of technologies, open source programming, GPS, radar, and Bluetooth. We will see this first with very new, very expensive cars. The new 2014 Mercedes-Benz E-class will come equipped with a complex array of sensors, optics, and sophisticated image processing software. The sensor array and on-board computers will process input data and provide real-time feedback to the driver regarding lane traffic and obstacles ahead. The computers will apply brakes should the driver not react fast enough.

Eventually, all cars will be equipped as a standard package such sensor array. Additionally, cars will "talk" with each other via a Bluetooth-like local network. Vehicles will transmit data among themselves, direction of travel, velocity, mass, number of passengers, etc., in order to maintain constant and even traffic flow. Your vehicle will emit energy of some form to measure distances to nearby objects, to judge distance, speed, momentum, time to stop, and so forth. We already see this technology being introduced in small increments, like the backup sensors available in the Buick Enclave. Aftermarket backup sensors and cameras are available for retrofitting older cars and trucks.

What does any of this have to do with drones?

I wanted to discuss size and flight times to introduce the notion of the variety of platforms available to the general public and, potentially, public agencies. I also wanted to mention new technologies we are familiar with, technologies we find in our Kindle Fire, Samsung Galaxy iPhones, or Android tablets.

These two technologies are merging. Arduino software is open-source software, based on Java, and controls the input/output boards on many drones. Other boards have the capability of being controlled with the flavors of Linux or Android. These boards interface with a multitude of other technologies, like Bluetooth, WIFI, cameras and optics, audio and microphones, plus provide navigation via GPS technology. Moderately priced drones will transmit live HD video back to the remote pilot and capture JPEG images. Some of these drones can be piloted with a Kindle Fire or iPad simply by changing the orientation of the tablet.

The wide array of current off-the-shelf technology, low-cost, and few barriers to entry presents a fantastic opportunity for the development of drones designed to serve and protect the general public.

Drones equipped with thermal sensors have a number of important and life-saving uses. Imagine a person or people become lost in the wilderness, say Canyonlands National Park.   Launching a "flock" of a suitably-equipped drones might find lost hikers far sooner than sending out people on foot or 4WD vehicles, and reduces the risk of putting human pilots in the air. Furthermore, due to miniaturization associated with telecommunications, drones could also be equipped with WIFI or even cellular technologies which could ping a person's cell phone, thereby giving away their location. As the drone would also be equipped with GPS, rescuers would know precisely the location of the lost hiker.

Wildfires are a problem within many state and national forests. The same drones used for hunting lost hikers could also be flown for monitoring potential fuel sources, "hotspots," campers with illegal campfires, or assessing fire damage.

Earthquakes present a serious problem to utilities and communication lines. In fact, as I write this, a 6.6Mg earthquake has just struck Buli, Taiwan. We don't have to go too far back in time to recall the Sendei, Japan, earthquake. The Sendei earthquake presented a number of concerns. Transportation links to the region were broken. Communication and power were lost. Radioactive contamination resulted from damage to a nearby nuclear power facility. How could drones have facilitated aid to the public?

Granted, I am using Sendei as an example, but keep this in mind - the location does not matter. What fundamentally matters is the recognition of how differing technologies can be married together to address a problem. The country or nationality is not the issue.

Drones can be equipped with cellular technology and act as mobile cellular links. While the number of connections may be limited, rescuers would be able to penetrate the affected region and make phone calls.

Drones can be equipped as WIFI "hotspots." A flock of drones flying in a formation above an affected region could provide emergency Internet connectivity for both rescuers and those needing assistance. Both the WIFI and cellular technology could also be leveraged to locate trapped or injured people.

Human being emits thermal energy. Drones equipped with thermal sensors could also locate hurt or trapped individuals, or locate fires or heat sources not visible at ground level. Similarly equipped drones might also be equipped to "sniff" the air for noxious or flammable gases.

In the case of the Sendei earthquake and the damage to the nuclear power facility, a drone could have been flown into the affected area in lieu of putting people at risk. Drones equipped with radiation detectors could map out the extent of radiation.

With embedded GPS, all drone data has the potential of being mashed into mapping applications. A clever programmer/cartographer could generate on-the-fly maps of radiation contamination. But, we need not limit ourselves to radiation. Drones would be ideal for determining the plume from airborne pollutants released into the atmosphere.

Hurricanes represent another threat to public safety. While information is increasing in density each hurricane season, meteorologists and climatologists still lack data (and funding) for research. Huge gaps in our knowledge exist even with several weather satellites in geosynchronous orbit around Earth. Weather satellites provide us with important small-scale (large area) data, such as temperature, general details of atmospheric composition, cloud cover, cloud type, and sea surface temperatures.

Meteorologists need real-time, continual, data collection covering a variety of atmospheric variables. Changes in air pressure not only at the surface but aloft are critical to understanding the movement of upper level winds. Temperature and humidity aloft are also critical factors in determining cloud cover, cloud type, deposition, ice formation, and other elements important in storm formation.

Currently, a number of technologies have been implemented to augment the collection of weather data. Some commercial aircraft contain weather instruments which transmit data back to ground collection stations. Many Weather Watchers maintain private Stephenson Shelters which collect and send weather data to the National Weather Service (NWS). The station data then appear on websites like the Weather Underground.

At about 92 stations around the United States weather balloons are sent aloft. These weather balloons carry a sensor package to about 100,000ft (20miles), collecting data during the ascent. Weather balloons are launched twice a day, at 6am and then again at 6pm. And, the payload is generally lost, but some people who find the payload do send the payload back to the NWS.

During hurricane season NOAA flies human-occupied aircraft into the heart of these powerful storm systems. While this sounds death-defying, read this account of a "boring" flight through a hurricane. The U.S. Air Force flies Lockheed WC-130 "Hurricane Hunters" on 10-hour long missions to collect data on a particular hurricane.

Not to put any pilot out of work; they could be re-trained to fly a "hurricane hunting" drone. Drones similar to the Global Hawk could be modified to collect atmospheric data without placing human lives at risk. And, they could be flown more frequently with potentially a greater range. I'm imagining a greater range in order to study hurricane formation over western Africa, the "nursery" of our western hemisphere tropical storms and hurricanes.

I hope I've provided some food for thought. I follow the philosophy "tools are tools, its how people use them which provide context." A hammer can build a home for Habitat for Humanity, and, as fans of "Law and Order" or "Bones" can testify, a hammer can be used to bash in someone's skull. No doubt, drones have uses that could trample a person's right to Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness, and privacy. Our government does not seem at all interested in protecting the private domain, which is both dangerous and disheartening. A drone with WIFI potential could easily snoop on internet traffic, or provide a platform for remote hacking of networks with absolute government complicity. And we have seen with the use of National Security Letters to circumvent warrants for collecting intelligence on U.S. citizens. No doubt, then, the potential for further comprise of a person's rights.

My next article may address some of those concerns. The current conversation going on across the United States varies from allowing only law enforcement access to drones, to allowing only private drone use, to the complete denial of drones to all. To me, all of this is simply unsophisticated, ignorance- and fear-based, which should come as no surprise since our government has continually leveraged perceived "fear" to assume more and more nuanced control over our daily lives since 9/11.

However, there are legitimate uses of drones within Public Safety and Law Enforcement. While many people would not agree, I will offer some perspectives and examples whereby drones would be preferable to putting a person at risk.

Finally, I'd like to thank some readers, for no other reason 56 of you selected to follow my blog, and I like to mention a few of you in each post. So, to Joe Seeber, Rachel Bok, Kurt Rees, and last but not least, Jo, thanks for your attention.

PAX

Related articles

• Reality catches up with sci-fi in storm drones (nzherald.co.nz)
• Weather drones that fly directly into storms becoming reality (ctvnews.ca)
• Drones in Archaeology (constantgeography.com)
• Drones in Agriculture (constantgeography.com)
• Road to nowhere: Could drones be the new highways? (cnn.com)